(1998). Culture is shaped by five interwoven elements, each of which principals have the power to influence: Fundamental beliefs and assumptions, or the things that people at your school consider to be true. But the real purpose of schools was, is, and always will be about learning. All leadership development has embedded cultural values. T. The first proposes four 'ideal type' school cultures, based on two underlying domains; the second, a more elaborate and dynamic model, proposes two 'ideal type' school cultures, based on five underlying structures. (1997). British Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 363386. Washington, K. Sarason, S. However, these may be taken-for-granted, and only apparent to those designing and delivering development when a lack of fit is pointed out by specific groups. (Eds. , Just as there is an interplay between culture and modes of delivery, assessment may also be rendered more or less effective by the degree of cultural fit. Leadership is therefore a community property shaped by a complex interrelationship between individuals and context, rather than resulting from individual intent and competition. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 2029. International Studies in Educational Administration. Jackson, D. He created a series of descriptors of the culture of schooling with a particular focus on how key cultural characteristics equate to the absence of a productive learning environment. Homogeneity or diversity is the organization more effective when it is characterized by diversity or homogeneity? School Effectiveness and School Improvement, v6 n1 p23-46 1995 Explores the relevance of culture to school effectiveness and school improvement. M. However House et al. Mills, M. The chapter aims to avoid becoming ensnared in the complexity of culture by confining its discussion to a sample of illustrative examples of both simple and complex conceptualizations. Bryant (1998) suggests that as a consequence school leadership as conceived in the US is unlikely to be appropriate to Native American educational leaders whose culture and consequent conception of leadership is very different. It is characterized by very limited research at the within school subunit scale, and by the adoption of generalized models of culture from business and management disciplines at whole-school or national/international scales of analysis. . Ribbins, P. (2005). The typology tool was first developed in 1997 as a hands-on, practical method of defining for discussion purposes a school's stage or type of culture. (forthcoming) distinguish transmission models, where experts pass on theoretical knowledge (often indiscriminately, as discussed earlier), and process models which use more community based styles of learning. There exists a considerable literature on culture, which provides a range of conceptualizations. Cross-cultural issues in development of leaders. P. W. In others, variation is considerable and the primary drive to develop teaching and learning, attainment and achievement may be located elsewhere. While the analytical models described are helpful in conceptualizing the nature of culture, there are a number of key issues for leaders to recognize in reflecting on their own organizations. Bottery (1999) has described this as managerial globalization, in which the adoption of western managerialist approaches and business-based forms of accountability underpins educational reform and development. (Eds. Unproductive, toxic schools have fragmented staffs, eroding goals, and negative, hopeless atmospheres. Wong, K. (2006). C Journal of Educational Administration, 334(5), 1231. , 210223). Organizational change, leadership and learning: culture as cognitive process. The chapter considers five main themes. Such a knowledge base would allow theory to be developed in a more culturally aware way. A challenge to dominant cultures and the evolution of cultures which are seen as fitting will be achieved only by persistent efforts to increase the intercultural fluency of all involved, in part by increasing the evidence base, and in part through detailed translation of such evidence to impact the design and delivery of the development of leaders. In previous papers we have described the evolution of this project in detail (Stoll and Fink, 1988, 1989a, 1989b, Fink and Stoll, 1992). Sapre and Ranade (2001, p. 379) deplore the fact that there is very little in modern Indian education that is truly rooted in the culture, tradition and genius of its people. The Australian Principals Centre: A model for the accreditation and professional development of the principalship. Leaders navigate cultural choices which are always constrained. (Eds. (2006). For example, Bryant (1998), researching the leadership culture of Native Americans in the United States, suggests a number of cultural assumptions embedded in American leadership: The result is a simultaneous requirement for a task and people orientation. For example, the balance of time given to study of the legislation relevant to schooling or to the implications of a particular faith, whether Islam, Christianity, or any other, will embed values within the curriculum through the choice of priority reflected in the time allocated. In crafting school culture, school leaders (principals, teachers, and parents) act as models, potters, poets, actors, and healers. , In Duke, D. L. as cited in Stoll, Fink & Earl, 2003, p. 132). The New Meaning of Educational Change (3rd ed.). (2004). Its view of the nature of truth and reality how does it define what is true and what is not and how is truth defined in the context of the social or natural world? Waters (1995) has identified three interwoven strands to globalization political globalization, economic globalization and cultural globalization. M. London: Sage. Clearly in these two instances, Western derived theories of autonomy, planning and change management are all thrown into question. Stoll (2000) gave a general definition on the foundations of school's cultures. Everyone expects superiors to enjoy privileges, and status symbols are very important. (2005). Once the inputs are understood and the intended outputs identified, the major challenge for the school leader is then to organize and operationalize the processes within the school to enable pupils to travel from their cultural starting point to the output position the school seeks to achieve. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 Societies (pp. Many leaders are constrained to varying degrees by the pressing demands of accountability and competition which in themselves create a dominant cultural context. ABSTRACT The relevance of the concept of culture to school effectiveness and school improvement is explored. Panel 3. The focus on culture at the macro or societal level is matched by concern with the micro or organizational level, the school level. In the education sector, the PLC provides a pathway to a learning organisation: one which comprises 'a group of people who take an active, re ective, collaborative, Stoll, & Mackay, 2014). Young Such reculturing (Fullan, 2001) is perhaps the biggest challenge to school leaders, though, for it will certainly generate conflict, contradiction and destabilization as part of the process as DiPaola (2003, p. 153) has indicated: School principals in transition. M. C. D. of the teachers, students and school community. Stoll and Fink identified 10 cultural norms that influence school improvement (see summary in Panel 2). Bjerke and Al-Meer (1993, p. 31) suggest that in the Arab world: Cultural sensitivity demands consideration of how leadership is dispersed amongst the players within schools and the regional administration in a specific context before designing national and local systems in response. Metaphorically culture is like the air we breathe; all around us, vital, and yet difficult to discern and to change. M. This paper's . However, his analysis of national culture has been abused to support stereotypical views and crude dichotomies, such as between Western cultures and those of Asia. She challenges whether any classification of humans is tenable in the light of increasing certainty deriving from advances in natural science that whatever taxonomy is adopted, the complexity of human beings, biologically, linguistically and culturally, cannot be placed into easily described categories: London: Sage. , (1997).Organizational behaviour (3rd ed.). 178190). P.J. These elements are but the tangible appearance of the underpinning set of values and beliefs, which shape the intended outcomes of the educational enterprise within a school. The government of Thailand sought to introduce the western concept of school-based management, but found this problematic in the context of an existing societal culture, typical amongst the staff of Thai schools, in which deference to senior management and leadership made the introduction of collaborative and distributed approaches to leadership very difficult. Understanding Schools as Organisations However, a model which merely identifies cultural elements doesnt take account of the dynamic nature of culture and it is useful therefore to consider culture in the context of a systems perspective on organizations. Lack of uniformity of culture is therefore an issue even among small, apparently homogeneous groups Distinguishing rhetoric from practice is a second challenge. The challenge for educational leaders is to recognize and conceptualize each of these cultural realms and understand how it impacts on and provides implications for their own school. V. Educational Leadership: Ambiguity, Professionals and Managerialism. N. There is also a preference to face facts whether positive or negative. The first proposes four 'ideal type' school cultures, based on two underlying domains; the second, a more elaborate and dynamic model, proposes two 'ideal type' school cultures, based on five underlying structures. He also insisted that the complex creation of culture was the result of multiple inputs from staff, learners and the wider community. While there is extensive research on the implications of assessment modes on school learners, including the relationship of assessment to variables such as gender and ethnicity, no similar body of research informs how we understand the assessment of leaders. The design of curriculum and delivery is therefore to an extent a cultural guessing game requiring those responsible for preparation and development to hold a high level of cultural fluency themselves and to support the development of cultural fluency in others. (1971). , (2007). International Journal of Educational Management, 5(3), 45. A key influence on culture within and beyond schools has been globalization. (1990). Despite the recognition that culture is an elusive and diverse concept, identifying some of the existing intellectual paradigms of culture is an important starting point. Educational leadership in East Asia: implications of education in global society. Preliminary explorations of indigenous perspectives of educational management, Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 5073. ), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 Societies (pp. Changing the culture of a school or of a leadership development program is therefore not a finite endeavor. The key dimension of cultural scales is that they all exist synchronously, and they all interact upwards and downwards. Hoppe (2004) believes US leaders have little difficulty in receiving negative feedback. , & From showcase to shadow: understanding dilemmas of managing workplace diversity. Its view of the nature of human activity does it believe that people behave in a dominant/proactive mode or a passive/fatalistic mode? We present here a small number of examples in order to illustrate a range of typologies. In this line, a study . (Hargreaves 1995; Maslowski 2001, pp. We consider later in this chapter the implications of this for the professional development of lead-ers within educational institutions. Brunner & & (Eds. V. The first is the blending of western (or, more correctly, exogenous) cultural values with existing cultures to generate a new cultural environment, a model sometimes described as the melting pot perspective. Pupils, staff and school leaders have an on-going engagement with external stakeholders, from parents, to neighbors, to employers, to the media, and every one of those interactions conveys a message about the culture of the school and its underpinning values. Changing the culture becomes merely a question of technical fit, of shaping leadership development to align it to local culture. Such an approach to cultural change is, of course, a key component of western approaches to educational leadership, and has been criticized for representing a fundamental misunderstanding of what culture is and can be. The concept of culture has appeared frequently in analyses of both. McCauley See all results for "" Log In La Habra High School . Aitken, R. Consequently mid-forged manacles of Western generated categories hinder the development of leaders in Malaysia where Islam is deeply embedded in culture. Cultural differences can be observed at a range of organizational scales. More research of this kind, exploring fit not only to the dominant culture of the nation/region, but also fit to the multiple cultures within the nation or region would provide a potentially powerful antidote to programs which are currently not culturally inclusive. Collard, J. & Bajunid., 2005; Sapre & Ranade, 2001; Walker, 2006; Wong, 2001), and faith (Shah, 2006). As Foskett and Lumby (2003, p. 8) indicate: In contrast the assessment of educational leaders often assumes that consideration of cultural fit is unnecessary in relation to standards which are uncritically accepted as international. & Multiple perspectives on values and ethical leadership. (2007). The model identifies seven dimensions of organizational context that shape resultant culture, based on a series of key questions: These questions provide a helpful analytical framework, which can be applied in most educational contexts, and which seeks to identify the underlying values and beliefs within a school. (1996). Assessment is also increasingly against competences which are exported internationally (MacPherson et al., 2007). Begley, P. & I am a member of the publication's editorial board and strongly support the publication, Authored by: Culture can take different forms. | Promotions It will therefore involve engagement with the moral choices which lie at the heart of leadership. G, Crow 143158). E. V. Velsor, E. V. They may also tackle the issue of how culture can be managed. (2002). For example, North American and European development assert a cultural commitment to inclusion and equality for all. R. J. The first is that leaders are passive ambassadors of culture. Kaur Hayers, P. (2001). Stoll and Fink (1996) created a typology of five types of school culture: moving (dynamic and successful determination to keep developing), cruising (rather complacent, often with privileged learners who achieve despite little school dynamism), strolling (neither particularly effective or ineffective, but long term not keeping pace with change), struggling (ineffective but trying to address issues), and finally sinking (ineffective and not improving). ), Strategic Human Resource Management (pp. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39(1), 6894. (1991). Accessed online 16.2.07. There have, of course, been many more attempts to categorize school cultures, each offering a particular perspective to illuminate the nature and effects of culture. Exploring the cultural context of school improvement in Thailand. . Hothouse culture exists where the pressure is to high academic achievement, typically in response to government or parental pressure to deliver high quality examination results. (2004). we elaborated a typology of school improvement trajectories: we identi ed 4 di erent trajectories of school improvement. & (2003). In relation to leader preparation and development culture has been framed largely as an issue of diffusion, particularly of Western values and practice applied to the development of leaders in all parts of the globe (Leithwood & Duke, 1998). Diversity and the demands of leadership. & Lopez, G. R. Develops two "ideal culture" typologies (traditional and collegial) and discusses each for its heuristic, conceptual, methodological, and explanatory potential in school effectiveness and school . In this set article, Professor Louise Stoll explores the relationship between school culture and school improvement. Identity based and reputational leadership: an American Indian approach to leadership. International Studies in Educational Administration, 29(2) 3037. Internationally leader preparation and development tends to focus on the principal. Conference of the Commonwealth Council for Educational Administration and Management, Collard, J. Iles, P. , By contrast Singaporean cultures emphasis on collective action and respect for seniority underpins acceptance and effective use of mentoring as an important mode of development, defined as a process whereby an expert or senior person guides a less experienced leader (Tin, 2001). Cultural Influences on Leadership and Organizations: Project Globe. In International Studies in Educational Administration. | Terms & conditions. Culture is the set of beliefs, values and behaviors, both explicit and implicit, which underpin an organization and provide the basis of action and decision making, and is neatly summarized as the way we do things around here. (Eds. It is also a response to the greater sensitivity brought about by the increasing diversity within many societies and the insistence that a perspective based on a single dominant culture risks sustaining a hegemonic, ineffective and excluding approach. (1997). Hoppe (2004) suggests that experiential learning proves enjoyable and effective for US leaders while French and German leaders often view this approach as time-wasting childs play (p. 353). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. J. , , School culture can have an positive. In the opening chapter to this section of the Handbook, Fink and Stoll review the contemporary field of educational change and ask why educational change is so difficult to understand and achieve in present times. According to Mortimore (1991), a lot of improvement efforts have failed because research results were not translated adequately into guidelines for educational practice. , London: Sage. Here we shall consider three of these perspectives which we believe provide diverse insights reflections on the tangible components of culture and a number of models of those components in action; consideration of the organizational scales at which culture is important in educational contexts; and a systems view of culture which enables the areas of potential management influence of culture in schools to be identified. While the former classroom and lecture based model is widespread, they suggest that the process model of problem solving, mentoring and internship holds more hope of reflecting indigenous cultures. ABSTRACT In 1986, the Halton Board of Education in Ontario, Canada initiated an Effective Schools Project. For example, culture is suggested to both shape and reflect values (Begley & Wong, 2001), philosophy (Ribbins & Zhang, 2004), gender (Celikten, 2005), religion (Sapre & Ranade, 2001), politics (Hwang, 2001), ethnicity (Bryant, 1998) and history (Wong, 2001). Celikten, M. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 401414. Matching culture to preparation and development engages with what is perceived to be universal, what appears to be distinctive to the region or nation or group of people, and what is unique to the individual. (2001). Those attempting to loosen the bonds of dominant cultures implicit in preparation and development programs research and write within the very dominant orientations they are trying to question (Gronn, 2001). Processual competencies, comprising intrapersonal competencies and cognitive competencies (2003, p.84), are also needed. (1993). Nor is it amoral. (2007). Similarly, Bajunid (1996, p. 56) argues that the richness of Islamic teaching is absent from concepts of leadership. & For example, Walker, Bridges and Chan (1996) provide a rare example of research into the fit of a particular learning approach, problem-based-learning, to a specific cultural context, Hong Kong. Preparing head teachers to respond to these challenges will be a significant challenge, therefore, and this is a focus later in the chapter. Professing educational leadership: conceptions of power. Cultures which are comfortable with hierarchy or with the co-creation of knowledge may find affinities with process modes. In the absence of a similarly complex or authoritative study of the cultural factors in educational leadership, the design of much preparation and development seems to adhere to an assumed commonality and to avoid detailed engagement with the culturally contingent (Lumby et al., forthcoming), resulting in an international curriculum for school leadership preparation (Bush & Jackson, 2002, pp. Leithwood, K. The capacity of any individual or group to engineer culture is questionable (Adler, 1997; Morgan, 1986).